Tips for Effective Oral Presentations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Tips for Effective Oral Presentations - Essay Example In this easy, some tips on how to make an effective presentation are discussed. The issue of stage fright, which is a major hindrance to making an effective oral presentation and how to manage it, is also discussed. At the end of this discussion, there should be clarity on how one can make an effective oral presentation. Keywords: Oral Presentation, Effective, Stage Fright Introduction When making an oral presentation, it is very important for one to be able to present thoughts and ideas effectively. Oral presentations are usually very popular in job interviews, and especially when one starts working (Gupta, 2008). So everyone is encouraged to practice oral presentation even before friends and family so as to perfect the skill before the very important time. Ones ability in this area can either make or break his or her career. This is because a person can be very hard working in the job he or she is doing, but if he or she does not have good skills in oral presentation, his or her gr owth will not be seen (Aquino, 2008). There are people who have a certain potential for communication, but this does not mean that they are good at oral presentation. The techniques involved would be very beneficial to such people, to sharpen up their skills more. Effective oral presentation skills make a person more popular among colleagues, for example, a manager who has good skills in oral presentation is likely to be popular among his juniors (Gupta, 2008). What is Oral Presentation? Most of the time, people tend to confuse oral communication with oral presentation, but the two are totally different. According to Gupta, â€Å"oral communication is an interactive process of sharing information† (2008, p. 91) with people. Oral presentation on the other hand refers to a proper way of transmitting messages to an audience. It is important to note that effective oral presentations are important for the growth of a company or organization one is working for, especially when the partners or donors of the funds are present. Characteristics of an Effective Oral Presentation Purposeful: When being composed, an oral presentation should be directed to a definite purpose and one that is clear, because it is aimed at conveying a message to the audience (Rizvi, 2005). Interactive: Any oral presentation should involve the speaker, as well as the audience (Rizvi, 2005). Formal: This is what differentiates oral presentation from other forms of presentations. As said earlier, it is usually emphasized during job interviews. Thus, it is usually used in formal situations. Audience Oriented: This means that the topic has to be dealt with from the perspective of the audience (Rizvi, 2005). Importance of an Effective Oral Presentation Employers usually put great emphasis on oral presentation skills, than in any other form of communication skills. Gupta asserts that an oral presentation has the potential to educate, inspire and persuade more effectively than any other individ ual mode of communication (2008). At some point in ones career, he or she may be asked to make a presentation, and this is the reason why most of the business people rank oral presentation skills as among the most important factors responsible for their success. A good oral presentation can work wonders for any person who is looking for lucrative job offer from a company he or she has dreamt of working with

Gerontology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gerontology - Essay Example It means that, that reliance becomes a way of finessing ethical decision making among professionals and therefore excusing what might a violation of ethics by asserting that there is no definitive standard that has been violated. In gerontology, ethical decision-making, mentoring relationships and ethical behavior is clearly more than just following of minimal law and ethical codes (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2008). It means that, for an instant; in mentoring relationships, one has to be continuously aware that some actions done by a gerontologist may be wrong irrespective of whether the law was broken or code violated. However, it is of much value that one considers professional code of ethics since they might apply during the mentoring of a gerontologist. Codes of ethics for professional gerontologists are the principles and ethical standards that depict the responsibilities and professional conduct of gerontologists. The principles are used to guide a gerontologist while performing their everyday activities and in case issues arise in their professional work. Professional competence is one key principle that gerontologists should observe while working (Wiersman & Dupuis, 2007). A gerontologist should distinguish the limitations that exist in their multidisciplinary expertise and should, therefore, undertake tasks that they are qualified in relation to their training, education and experience. In order to maintain competence at work, gerontologist will continue with their education. Competencies include skill, attitude, knowledge, behavior and judgment of a gerontologist. It is vital for a professional to recognize that most behaviors have cultural meaning; therefore, one needs to view the behavior within contextual issues of the pat ient (Hinrichsen, 2006). One should be able to recognize the communication changes that affect older adults in their care and formulate strategies that will meet the need of the patient for optimum communication

The cycle of a relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The cycle of a relationship - Essay Example A closer look at these stages will help us to analyze them in a better way. The relationship starts with a formal conversation and this stage is referred to as initiation where the exchange of information is limited. (McGraw, 2001). As days pass by, the relationship moves on to the next stage where the topic of conversation is about likes and dislikes. They tend to ask more questions to know more about each other in order to move forward in their relationship. Not all relationships move on to the next stage, some of them part their ways if their interests are not similar. This phase is known as the experimentation phase. Once they cross this stage, the relationship intensifies and the girl and the boy tend to share more information about their personal life. The relationship evolves into a more intimate one and physical attributes might also crop in. Each step in this part of a relationship brings them closer leading to a state where they accept each other. This phase is called as the phase of integration and the couple tends to exhibit common interests and likes. The relationship gets converted into a bond where the girl and the boy get themselves engaged. In certain relationships, the more matured form is also attained. A relationship becomes stronger when they agree to accept each other as they are and it seems to be easy to take it up to the next level. But, not all the relationships end on a positive note. People tend to move away and this occurs in different stages. Getting separated or moving apart can happen at any stage of the relationship. When analyzing a bonded relationship, the possibility of getting into an argument or a fight is less, whereas, a couple with less understanding is more prone to such unnecessary fights and problems. Initially the differences might take a front seat and every other talk leads to a fight.

Strategic Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategic Marketing - Essay Example However it is accomplished, the satisfaction of all physical distribution needs in the marketing channel must be accomplished for the rest of the channel to function successfully. The selection and use of physical distribution facilitating agencies is quite different than the selection and use of facilitating agencies for other channel services. In most cases other than for physical distribution, the facilitating agency will be employed and paid for by whichever channel member needs it. For physical distribution, however, the manufacturer or marketer will normally locate, select, and pay for the services of agencies involved in physical distribution (McCalley, 1992, p. 43). Channel strategy literature informs us about channel-facilitating agencies that can provide a variety of services for the manufacturer or marketer of products. Marketing services in this context needed depend on what can be expected from the channel members and the capabilities of the manufacturer. In this case not only strategies are required but other governance and management issues are also of significance that are most commonly the selected marketing channel members as they have the ability to ship and store products at the wholesale or retail levels in the market. These are actually the intermediaries that provide all or most of the physical distribution functions. In conditions where the channel members are unable to provide the needed services, the manufacturer has the option of providing the services itself or employing facilitating agencies to perform them. Therefore the need for all or some of these services or for other physical distribution services depends on manufactu rers’ ability to themselves satisfy the key physical distribution requirements of the marketing channel to be managed. Let us review that in order to help us in determining what is

Underlying Causes of Power Struggle in Marriage as Gleaned from Literature Essay Example for Free

Underlying Causes of Power Struggle in Marriage as Gleaned from Literature Essay In   the movie, Sylvia, talented poet and writer Sylvia Plath drives her husband intot he arms of another woman.   Fed up with her recurring bouts of jealousy and insecurity, and the ensuing rounds of arguments and quarrels, he breaks free to preserve his sanity.   Her world crumbles and she eventually commits suicide.   A closer look points to indubitable flaws not just from the female but from the male, moreso from society around which their world revolves.   The life story of the legendary Sylvia Plath, highlighted by her tumultuous relationship   with husband and fellow poet Ted Hughes, provides a clear-cut illustration of marital power struggle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Elisabeth Bronfen , a specialist in 19th and 20th century literature and a professor of English and American Studies, noted that the culprit in the tragic conflict between Sylvia Plath and Ted Hughes was her â€Å"unbroken dependence on her perfect mate (which) lets her fall prey to jealousy, envy, anger, humiliation and burning loneliness when her trust in him is called into question†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Bronfen 46). Indeed, nothing perhaps can agitate or vex a man more than a woman’s constant nagging, mistrust, and fault-finding, especially when has not done anything yet to deserve it.   To aggravate the situation, and as portrayed in Henrik Ibsen’s â€Å"A Doll’s House†, society dictates that a man must be the dominant individual in a marriage.   The uneasiness of most men that arises when this is not followed is often what leads to fights (blatant outward sign of the power struggle) and worse, the eventual collapse of the partnership and, in Sylvia’s case, the worst tragic consequence – death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The power struggle between husband and wife, or other similar pair of individuals in a relationship has, since time immemorial, existed not just in movies and books but in real-life settings.   A power struggle in marriage emerges somewhat like `art imitating life’ and vice versa.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the part of female partners, one must consider that there are other factors that account for the tangled web of emotions and personalities that women assume and drive them to engage in a â€Å"power struggle† with their mates.   Women have been portrayed countless times in literature as being compassionate or easily taken advantage of, but able to put up (or attempt to) put up a fight when pushed too far.    In some instances, belonging to a clique has also been depicted in classic literature as a threat to a couple’s union.   When constant interaction from the male or female’s side breeds contempt, jealousy and rivalry, it tends to destroy a couple’s relationship, as illustrated in Jane Austen’s sequel to Pride and Prejudice, â€Å"Mr. Darcy Presents his Bride written by Helen Halstead. In the latter’s book, Elizabeth Bennet’s prestigious clique posed a threat to her new marriage to Fitzwilliam Darcy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Society undoubtedly plays a major part in heightening the power struggle between man and woman in a marital bind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Antoinette Stafford in â€Å"The Feminist Critique of Hegel on Women and the Family† cited 18th century thinker Mary Wollstonecraft’s argument, â€Å"If women are in fact often frivolous, swayed by emotion and lacking in `the manly virtues of moral courage and disinterestedness, then this is not their natural character.   Rather, it arises solely because of educational practices and social expectations which prevent them from perfecting their latent rational capacities.† In The Internet Encyclopedia   of Philosophy, James J. Delaney referred to   Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s treatise on education pertaining to â€Å"Women, Marriage, and Family†: â€Å"Hers is not as focused on theoretical matters, as men’s minds are more suited to that type of thinking. Rousseau’s view on the nature of the relationship between men and women is rooted in the notion that men are stronger and therefore more independent. They depend on women only because they desire them. By contrast, women both need and desire men. Sophie is educated in such a way that she will fill what Rousseau takes to be her natural role as a wife. She is to be submissive to Emile.† Reacting to J.J. Rosseau’s abovementioned treatise, which also envisions an education for the boy that will foster an independent mind and spirit, autonomy and self-sufficiency, while his female counterpart is to be educated to please the male companion-to-be and in the process fulfill her womanly potential, Wollstonecraft argued that â€Å"..a separate standard of excellence for woman undermines the universality of rational freedom.† This rational   freedom is at the core of   the existentialist theory that is also among the larger causes of the power struggle occurring in a marriage.   As Simone de Beauvoir expressed, â€Å"It is the individual who bears responsibility for the world†¦ It is the individual’s responsibility to create meaning through her choices† (Andrew 26). Existentialism, in essence, pertains to â€Å"ideas of choice, meaning and the limits of existence.†Ã‚   It is up to each individual to use his freedom to choose his actions and interactions in the world (Andrew 25), even if it is bound to instigate a power struggle at some point in a relationship.   If someone opts to subjugate or be subjugated, often it arises from that person’s free will. In â€Å"The Feminist Critique of Hegel on Women and the Family,† Stafford cited how Simone de Beauvoir and subsequent thinkers set forth: â€Å"Lives circumscribed by domesticity and child-rearing are not fully human and women who accept the socially constructed belief in a pre-given female nature, and hence in a determinate female destiny, are accomplices in their own enslavement.   The only means beyond this self-imposed oppression is actively to seek a reversal of roles, accepting and identifying oneself with the male model of transcendence†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In many parts of Asia and elsewhere in the world, one will see such reversal of roles widely practiced, both in literary pages and in real life.   The â€Å"Good Woman of Setzuan† by Bertolt Brecht encapsulates such reversal of roles.   The heroine, Shen Te, strives hard to love a good life in brutal pre-Communist China. She disguises herself as a man and finds her compassionate persona transformed into a violent, unconquerable character which allows her to cope better with the world around her.   Indeed, assuming the male’s `strong, stern and aggressive’ characteristics often works in the male-dominated society.   When women rise to the challenge of being co-equals with their mates over and on top of their preordained role as nurturer of family values, in some cases overshadowing their male counterparts, the power struggle is ignited. Many great works of literature have shown how women either succumbed or fought their way out of enslavement by the male species.   Henrik Ibsen’s â€Å"A Doll’s House† is a much studied work that gives light to how a woman achieves self-liberation by leaving the confines of the home. The online study guide by   SparkNotes: A Doll’s House, Themes, Motifs Symbols draw attention to how the instability of appearances within the main character’s household at the play’s end results from the main male character’s obsession with status and image. Most men’s preoccupation with status and image, including having a ‘trophy wife† by their side, may be commonplace, but feminists have not let this vision of male superiority go by without much lamentation.  Ã‚   Emily Friedman, in an article posted in ABCNews.com on   July 13, 2007, departed from stereotypes and provided a positive connotation to the phrase, `trophy wife’ when she quoted author Anne Kingston (who wrote â€Å"The Meaning of Wife†): The idea of the trophy wife has progressed so that men want a woman who has some social equality, and its not a dominant-submissive relationship†¦ Increasingly, its not simply the decoration that a truly accomplished man wants, but an equal. Nonetheless, the Hegelian belief that `nature has assigned woman to the family’ may still be embraced by certain societies in the contemporary era, but the woman we find now has certainly metamorphosed to am multi-tasking and active participant in community affairs and national life.   What well-meaning quarters caution, though, is the possibility that society’s basic institution – the family – may tend to be overlooked when both husband and wife assume a place in civil society and doggedly pursue their careers and personal aspirations.   Herein lies another major issue of debate between husband and wife, especially when they fail to compromise. â€Å"The Feminist Critique on Women and Family† by Stafford also noted how women vary in their perception of what is `oppressive† and what is not.   While serving as housewife may be denigrating and limiting (in terms of personal freedom) for some, â€Å"it may be regarded as a chosen instrument for creative self-expression† in others. Infidelity , whether imagined or actual, and argued by most as being part of the inherent nature of men, is another major source of friction between husband and wife.   Whether infidelity, though, arises from protracted oppression from, or a form of assertion by, the husband, or the wife herself, is open to debate.   During the Elizabethan Age, a wife’s fidelity was regarded more as an obligation foisted by society and circumstances.   In The Literary Encyclopedia, classical literary critic and lecturer Ros King noted how William Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew â€Å"reasserts male dominance†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another online site, Academic Forum, Sherri Thorne’s article, â€Å"Shakespeare: Advocate for Women in The Taming of the Shrew† noted how it was Shakespeare’s intention to show that family and society have contributed to the circumstances that make the female character, Katherina, the shrew she is. Her male counterpart in the story, Petruchio, recognizes that Katherina’s shrewish behavior is a societal response. â€Å"Shakespeare uses Petruchio to present his definition of the proper relationship between a husband and his wife†¦ At their first meeting, Petruchio and Katherina engage in an energetic and emotionally charged verbal exchange. Katherina strikes Petruchio when her verbal attacks are ineffective. Generally, Katherina’s words are effective artillery to keep her adversaries sufficiently subdued†¦ Petruchio gains control of the situation, keeping their sparring verbal rather than letting it escalate into physical violence† (Thorne 59) This exemplifies the genteel demeanor observed by most during the Elizabethan age. In the Comprehensive Online Educational Resource, Anne Parten noted the significance of   another   Shakespearean work, Merchant of Venice, citing the a ring as symbolism for man’s potential for fidelity, and the lead female character, Portia, is shown to have superiority over all the male characters. Whatever the underlying causes pointed out by perceptive literary minds as instigators of the power struggle occurring in marriages or relationships, men and women will continue to be at odds with each other on matters ranging from trivial and absurd to highly complex, simply because that is just how differently they are wired.   In the words of Robert Louis Stevenson, â€Å"Marriage is like life   in this – that it is a field of battle and not a bed of roses.† Works Cited Andrew, Barbara S. â€Å"Beavoir’s Place in Philosophical Thought.† The Cambridge Companion to Simone de Beauvoir. Ed. Claudia Card. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. 25-26. Bhatia, Praveen.   Macbeth. New Delhi: UBS Publishers’ Distributors Pvt. Ltd., 2007. Brecht, Bertolt. Good Woman of Setzuan. England: Penguin Books Ltd., 2007. Bronfen, Elisabeth. â€Å"Trophy Wife: Just Hot or Smart Sexy?† Sylvia Plath. 2nd ed. UK: Athenaeum Press Ltd., 2004. Friedman, Emily. 13 July 2007. ABCNews.com. 28 January 2008 http//www.abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=3372209page=1. Halstead, Helen. Mr. Darcy Presents His Bride. California: Ulysses Press, 2007. Ibsen, Henrik.   A Doll’s House and Other Plays. Penguin Group (USA) Inc.,  1973. King, Ros. â€Å"The Taming of the Shrew.† The Literary Encyclopedia. 2 November 2004. Queen Mary and Westfield College, University of London. 28 January 2008 http//www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=trueUID=7887. Parton, Anne.   Comprehensive Online Educational Resource. eNotes.com, Inc. 28 January 2008.   http://www.enotes.com/merchant/portia. Shakespeare, William. Merchant of Venice. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 1994. Shakespeare, William. Taming of the Shrew. New York: Penguin Books Ltd., 1995. Stafford, Antoinette. â€Å"The Feminist Critique of Hegel on Women and the Family.†Ã‚   25 January 2008 http//www. mun.ca/animus/1997vol2/staford1.htm. Thorne, Sherri. â€Å"Shakespeare: Advocate for Women in The Taming of the Shrew†Ã‚   2003-04.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Academic Forum. 28 Jan 2008

John Locke And 18th Century Materialists Philosophy Essay

John Locke And 18th Century Materialists Philosophy Essay John Locke, the British philosopher and physician, is considered to be one of the most prominent figures of the Age of Enlightenment; he is also sometimes referred to as the Father of Liberalism. Drawing on the philosophical principles of Francis Bacon, his predecessor, and the progress of contemporary natural science with what it could offer philosophy in terms of contributing to its progress John Locke developed the theory of empiricism that had a profound influence on French materialists of the Enlightenment Age. In his first book Essay Concerning Human Understanding John Locke laid down his major principles of the human mind being what can be described as tabula rasa, a blank on which people write what they acquire from their experience. He contrasted his major principle of cognition to Descartes ideas of innatism claiming people would not be able not to recognize the existence of such ideas if only they possessed them. Lockes also referred to the way different people learn throughout their lives, and how basic principles they are guided with vary for different people and at different periods of time. As human experience is the only source of knowledge, people depend on their senses in acquiring knowledge. Thus Lockes theory is also known as sensualism. According to Locke, the experience should be seen as either external or internal. The former, also called sensation, provides us with what we know about the objects of the external world (or what we suppose to be such, as there is no evidence, according to Locke, of their actual physical existence). These can be, for example, sounds, motion, color, size, etc. The internal experience, or reflection, is expressed in such human processes as knowing, believing, doubting etc., all of which are related to our internal operations of the spirit caused by the influence of objects. Also, Locke discriminates between simple and complex sensations and reflections, depending on whether they can be reduced to more simple elements (e.g. rotundity) or they are such that cannot be reduced to more simple components. Complex ideas that we have about complex elements can be also distinguished into three groups: ideas of substance, ideas of mode and ideas of relationship. The first group includes certain simple ideas of a given object that has its core characteristics; the ideas of mode are a combination of ideas presented by human mind, which are the reflection of the mode or features of existing things. The ideas of relationship derive from human comparison of ideas and may include certain relationship and cause or other types of relations. Besides, Locke stipulated the existence of general ideas that come as a result of isolating the universal, abstract idea from the actual object due to its being common to several sensations. Thus the humans collect abstract ideas, which are regarded as the cognitive process of nominalization. Having given a detailed theory of human cognition process, John Locke emphasized the value of education by claiming that he thought that it may be said that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten were what they were, good or evil, useful or not, were made by their education. (Locke, 1979). It is important to see what implications Lockes ideas had for ethics and political theory both of his contemporaries and further periods of human history. In his ethical principles Locke approaches Rationalism. As there are no innate moral ideas human well-being becomes the key the criterion of moral actions. Human experience demonstrates that all people try to find more pleasure and avoid pain. Yet if people are rational in their pursuit of pleasure they will come to principles of cooperation that will result in the general happiness and welfare coinciding with individual emotions. Therefore it is in the best interests of people to think of others, to be focused on general good, both in terms of their daily routine and what may come after their lives in this world. Locke supported religious freedom (being himself born into a Puritan family) and was against dogmatic approach to religious principles emphasizing on the ethical principles of Christianity. Specifically focusing on tolera nce, Locke rejected atheism and Roman Catholicism. Those ideas and principles expressed by an outstanding philosopher that were probably most valued by different people and prominent political leaders in different countries are those associated with political theories. Locke postulated that all people were created equal (the principle referred to by the US Constitution and its founders expressing their admiration of Locke). No person had the right over other persons life, health, liberty, or possessions. The state had to be result of peoples concession and had to be guided by natural laws. Rights of property had to be valued, and each person had to exercise his or her right over the products of their labor. Therefore Locke is justly looked upon as the founder of liberalism in politics, with his influence extending far to other thinkers and their theories. Similarly to Locke, La Mettrie was a man with broad academic background typical for great thinkers of his time. He, like Locke, also found his main opponent in the personality of Rene Descartes contrasting his principles to the latters principles of rationalism, or truth through knowledge. For La Mettrie truth came through experience, and this principle of empiricism makes him what can be described as Lockes disciple. Another point of debate was that Descartes claimed animals were machines. La Mettrie argues with Descartes about what he termed as an absurd system. In his best-known work Man a Machine, though, La Mettrie comes closer to principles of Descartes who considered the soul as a separate entity from the body and denied the soul in men, thus recognizing only the mind, which, according to him, was merely a function of the brain. Further in his book, La Mettrie surveyed the philosophy of materialism and atheism. In contrast to John Lockes principles, La Mettrie denied that the natural world could serve as the evidence of God. According to him, all the evidences of a creator, repeated thousands and thousands of times, were the evidences that placed far above the comprehension of men. The natural consequence is his next idea that life might be completely without purpose. La Mettrie considered the essence and attributes of matter. He claimed that its main property was the ability to move. This feature is universal for describing any objects in the world and therefore can be hardly argued with. For La Mettrie the human soul was not more than the physical functions of the body not proved by any evidence of physiology. Being consistent in applying his theories to humans La Mettrie brought to the maximum the principles of the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment. Having the medical academic background, La Mettrie cited examples from anatomy, physiology, and psychology showing the functions of the body as the basis of what philosophers considered to be a soul. His claim was that people were so closely related to animals that there hardly was a difference between them. La Mettries man was organic, self-moving (as part of any matter), active; the philosopher made no distinction between conscious, or voluntary movement and unconscious, or instinctive move ment. Other important implications of La Mettries theory were those connected to moral issues. He viewed the moral problems as something that needed to be associated with physiological nature of human beings. For him the good and the evil were merely arbitrarily notions constructed social structures out of their own interests and with the aim of serving their own needs, which not only could not be corroborate by natural science but also contradicted it and the nature of an individual. La Mettrie went as far as stating that by recognizing the arbitrary nature of moral principles developed by mankind and its institutions people would get better chances of getting happiness for them and accept wider frameworks of behavior patterns. According to him, the society could not dispose of its members that their behavior aimed at personal happiness was contrary to its principles. The objects of La Mettrie acute criticism was in particular Christianity as a moral systems, because he believed that it was based on an adequate and distorted principles of addressing the human nature. La Mettrie philosophy can be seen as starting from John Lockes basic principles of empiricism, sensualim and liberalism but then departing from them far enough to get to atheism and the kind of materialism that exaggerated the physiological nature of human beings, underestimating the principles of their social behavior and thus reducing them to creatures not bound by moral principles or social laws.

All students with special education needs

All students with special education needs 1.0 Introduction: This paper explores an ongoing debate in the educational field; should all students with Special Educational Needs (SENs) be included in mainstream educational provisions? To fully understand the issues involved, the paper will begin with an introduction to SEN and historical developments that have shaped SEN as we know it today. An investigation into inclusion will follow evaluating current issues that will help to determine whether inclusion for all SEN is possible or not. An analysis of SEN pupils will highlight strategies that may allow teachers along with organisation to implement inclusion along with its limitations. A conclusion will finalise the paper evaluating key findings. 2.0 Special Educational Needs (SEN) An Overview In order to assess whether students with SENs should be included in mainstream educational provisions, one must first understand what SEN means. Under the 1944 Education Act, children with special educational needs were categorised by their disability defined in medical terms. This meant that some children were considered to be uneducable and pupils were labelled into categories such as maladjusted or educationally sub-normal and given special educational treatment in separate schools. The Warnock Report in 1978, followed by the 1981 Educational Act, radically changed the conceptualisation of special educational needs. It introduced the idea of special educational needs (SEN), statement of SEN, and an Integrative which later became known as inclusive an approach based on common educational goals for all children regardless of their ability or disabilities: namely independence, enjoyment and understanding. For purpose of this paper the definition proposed by The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (2002) is taken into account stating that children have SEN if they have a learning difficulty that calls for special educational provisions to be made for them. However, the difficulty with such definition, and the issue arising from The Warnock Report, was the unforeseen consequence that the term SEN has become to be the name of a single category which has led to some conflicting issues. Quarmby (2006) reiterates that government has been using it as if it is the same problem to include a child in a wheelchair and a child with Aspergers, and this is conspicuously untrue This category within the SEN umbrella help to understand students with special needs, and ascertains the fact that certain students may need different special educational provisions to be made for them. But whose responsibility is it to provide the necessary provisions for students to learn? The paper asks a deliberate straight forward question should all students with SENs be included in mainstream education? If yes, does this mean mainstream schools would be expected to include pupils with Cognitive and Learning Needs; Behaviour, Emotional and Social Development Needs; Communication and Interaction Needs and Sensory and/or physical needs? At what level do we need to include them? Is it just sharing time, socialising, sharing tasks or is it the active participation in-class activities following the same curriculum. This leads to the unenviable task of evaluating inclusion. 3.0 Inclusion Over the last 30 years, policies about integration and subsequently about inclusion have been the subject of much controversy. Much has been written about efforts to include pupils identified as having special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream schools and classrooms. Inclusion reflects the idea that it is not for SEN children to be somehow fitted in or integrated into the mainstream but that education as a whole should be fully inclusive of all children (House of Commons Report, 2006). Until the 1990s the term inclusion was rarely used and instead we referred to integration or mainstreaming meaning the placement of pupils with disabilities or special needs in mainstream schools. Integration was the term first introduced in the 1978 Warnock Report referring to the concept of integrating children with SEN into a common educational framework. There were different integration, from full-time placement in a mainstream classroom (functional integration) to the placement of a pupil in a special class or unit attached to a mainstream school (locational) (Hegarty, 1991). The aim to end segregation was gathering momentum and from a human rights approach, it was certainly a requirement. However, there was often little difference between locational integration and a traditional special school, which can be seen as equally segregating experiences (Jupp, 1992). Indeed, even pupils placed in mainstream class may be isolated from their peers, particularly if they work with a support worker in one-to-one sessions for the majority of each day. Integrated placements, therefore, still leave many pupils segregated (Harrower, 1999). Partly for this reason, the term inclusion came to describe the extent to which a school or community welcomes pupils identified with special educational needs (SEN) as full members of the group and values them for the contribution which they make. Their diversity of interests, ability and attainment should be welcomed and be seen to enrich the life of the school. In this sense, as Ballard (1999) argues, inclusion is about valuing diversity rather than assimilation. This general movement towards inclusion was also (In addition to The Warnock Report) strongly influenced by the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994) which had a major impact on shaping policy developments in many different countries. In England this is evident in various government initiatives since the late 1990s including, for example, the statuary Inclusion Guidance (DfES, 2001a), the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act (DfES, 2001b) and the Removing Barriers to Achievement strategy (DfES, 2004) each providing a further impetus towards inclusion (Hick et al, 2009). Overall, after an extensive literature review it was evident that three main strands have developed relating to inclusion. One is about equal opportunities and right to education for all. It argues that any form of segregation on the basis of disability or learning difficulty is morally wrong (Jordan and Goodey, 1996; Lindsay, 2003). A second strand is based on a re-conceptualisation of the special needs issue as part of the process of school improvement (Ainscoq, 1999). This idea is based on the argument that it is the structure of schools as organisations rather than differences between individual pupils that creates special educational needs (Tomlinson, 1982). The third strand of literature has been concerned with questions of pedagogy. Though some have focused on the development of inclusive practice from the outset (Forest and Pearpoint, 1992), others have considered whether or not teaching practices and methods can be implemented in mainstream schools and classrooms in order to meet the challenge of inclusive education (Cook and Schrimer, 2003). Inclusive practice is therefore concerned with actions and activities that staffs in schools do that give meaning to the concept of inclusion. These 3 main strands will be used as a framework in deciding whether students with SEN should be included in mainstream education provision. In addition it is essential to understand and apply the SEN Code of Practice principles that support inclusive education as a framework in achieving inclusion. The five fundamental principles that support inclusive can be observed in Table 2: As with any change, the inclusion of all students with SENs in mainstream education provisions may bring both positive and negative impacts within schools and pupils. 3.1 The Good and the Evil Although inclusion is seen as a very positive strategy by some, it is considered idealistic and impractical by others. Some critics have argued that inclusion happens at the expense of good and appropriate education for the other children in the class; in other words, if a student with special needs is taught within a mainstream class, they might need extra attention from the teacher, or may be disruptive or difficult in class, and this could harm other childrens education. On the other hand it can be argued that the other children in the class benefit a great deal from working with students with special educational needs and that inclusive education helps to remove stereotypes and ignorance. It is also argued that children with SEN are better off in segregated classrooms as this enables them to gain social support from others with similar difficulties. It also allows opportunities to concentrate specialist teachers and resources in one place. The objection to this is that the disadvantage of keeping children with certain difficulties together is that it makes it harder for them to integrate fully into society once they leave school. 3.2 Inclusion in Practice The Government recognised the barriers to inclusion that exist in schools in its statement in 2004(DfES, 2004) and set out a proposal about how the barriers should be tackled. OFSTED, in its report in 2004, found that more mainstream schools saw themselves as inclusive, but only a minority met special educational needs very well. Members of the SENCo Forum responded to the Governments Special Need Action Plan by stating that schools would have to provide much higher level of flexibility in the way that learning and teaching take place, if the aims of inclusive education are to be realised (SENCo Forum, 2003). In addition, MacBeath et al (2006) concluded that some of the problems in schools attempting to implement inclusion were that the current education system itself made it difficult to implement inclusion. Gillinson and Green (2008) argue that it is essential to regard children and young people themselves and their parents as normal practice. They conclude that the issue is not about treating everyone as the same- what is important is that everyone should be treated equally. Gross (2001) also comments that what young people most want is the right to belong. Belonging brings along a morale issue with regards to inclusion. It is therefore imperative to understand what characterises these pupils with SEN and understand better what makes them unique. 4.0 Special Educational Needs Pupils At heart of all the discussion are the actual pupils who suffer special needs. In light of the extensive research, proposals by government, frameworks and guideline and committee reports one inevitably raises the question of their effectiveness. Are mainstream schools performing? Are pupils experiencing inclusive education? Are these guidelines and proposals effective? Unfortunately the overall answer may be unsatisfactory. The Audit Commission found that the vast majority of permanent exclusions in the 22 local authorities surveyed related to pupils with SEN: 87% of exclusions in primary schools and 60% of exclusions in secondary. In addition, pupils with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism and mental health problems made up significant proportions of these pupils. At this stage one wants to highlight that it is not the purposeful intention to only focus on pupils with Autistic and Social, Emotional, and Behavioural Difficulties but data does demonstrate that with regards to inclusion of sensory and/or physical needs pupils, some success in mainstream education provisions are beginning to develop. The House of Commons Report (2006) cites the Disability Rights Commission (DRC) recognising, there has been major progress in providing disabled children and young people with more equitable educational opportunities and a steady improvement in educational outcomes, which show a faster annual increase in achievement of GCSE grades A-grades, A-C and equivalent over the last six years by disabled people than non-disabled people In addition, the Disability Rights Commission (DRC) highlights that not all disabled pupils and students have learning difficulties. Similarly, pupils and students deemed to have learning difficulties or SEN are not disabled. In light of the above finding, as well as the overwhelming data demonstrating that the majority of the of exclusion in primary and secondary are pupils suffering from ADHD and autism, specific effort has been given to address the inclusion of these in mainstream educational provisions. In addition, the Gibraltar Educational Schooling Structure limits the contact of mainstream teachers with pupils with severe/profound and multiple needs, as well as multi-sensory impairments. These pupils enrol in special school environment. Being exposed to pupils with ADHD and autism (in the organisation) will also aid in supporting some answers with research evidence. Increasing knowledge in these groups will also is beneficial for CPD purposes. 5.0 Behaviour, Emotional and Social Needs and Autism Young people with emotional and social development difficulties and autism are the fastest growing categories of SEN. This is having repercussions for schools, and more so for pupils. In addition as the parent representative group Network 81 describe: the lack of understanding of conduct disorders, behavioural, and emotional needs is quite unbelievable. Many children are labelled as naughty, badly brought up, and defiant by teaching staff who group all bad behaviour together. This serves to highlight a possible issue where pupils are being misunderstood and labelled by those who may impact significantly their future teachers. Furthermore, The House of Commons Report (2006) states it is widely recognised that there is a strong correlation between exclusions and children with SEN-particularly those with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and autistic behaviour. The Committee finds it unacceptable that such a well known problem continues to occur and quite frankly from a teacher point of view, one can only agree. This indicates that schools need better guidance and staff training, particularly with Autistic and social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties. This leads to the inevitable argument on whether SEBD pupils should be included in mainstream educational provisions. In order not to fall into the generalisation trap, one has focused on the main groups of exclusion at the current moment. These are pupils suffering from ADHD and autism. An evaluation of the 3 strand mentioned prior will determine whether inclusion should be possible or not. 5.1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ADHD has been a topic of heated discussion within the educational world. For some, it is considered to be a medical condition, characterised by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (APA, 2000). However, according to others (e.g. Humphrey, 2009) there has been no biological marker identified that can reliably distinguish between children with and without the condition. Estimates though suggest that between 2% and 6% of students are affected by ADHD (Cooper, 2005) and still growing. From a mainstream school provision, and more so from a teachers perspective, it is generally accepted that students with ADHD are considered among the most difficult to include effectively. Lack of knowledge about disorder end up with teachers frustration towards students (SCOtENS, 2008). It is therefore important to consider what we mean when we say we are helping to include them. Mainstream teachers report a lack of appropriate training as a key barrier to success in this area (West et al, 2005). If inclusion means meeting the childs needs in mainstream schools and settings, have the child views sought and taken into account and having full access to a broad, balanced and relevant education as suggested in The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (2001), then it must go beyond general questions of the presence of children with SEN in such schools, and as Norwich and Lewis (2005:2) explain, we need to address the question of classroom teaching and curriculum in considering inc lusion and inclusive practices. There is the suggestion that the needs of such learners dictate that they require distinct kinds of teaching in order to learn the same content as those without special needs. If not, pupils with ADHD are more likely than others to experience social isolation, with fewer reported friendships and greater levels of rejection (Bagwell et al, 2001) inevitably leading to disruptive behaviour. Norwich and Lewis (2005) argue that pedagogic needs can be addressed by thinking about the needs that are specific to all; thinking about those needs that are specific to a certain group (such as students with ADHD); and thinking about those needs that are unique to the individual. The strategies are based upon the principle that by creating a better fit between the school environment and the student, we are creating opportunities for pupils to succeed. The question now lies in determining whether these strategies can be implemented in mainstream provisions and whether they will conflict with good an d appropriate educational strategies that other children in the class already experience. Students with ADHD often experience difficulties in mainstream classrooms and schools because the emphasis on meeting common needs mean that their specific group needs are not being addressed (Cooper, 2005). However, these common needs may come about due to the National Curriculum. One of the major concerns about the National Curriculum has been that it does not address the breadth of education necessary to meet childrens and young peoples educational needs. So is the curriculum in its present form a contributory cause of poor behaviour? A further concern about the National Curriculum is the current approach to assessment. Research from the perception of students themselves suggests that many experience confusion, anxiety, blame and guilt (Hughes, 2005) in relation to their education, which is not exactly surprising considering the struggles they need to deal with. However, as a mainstream teacher, one is fully aware that change in the National Curriculum cannot be proposed and overcome easily therefore an alternative strategy must be investigated to create a better fit between school environment and the student. The strategy may lie in pedagogy. In achieving the necessary learner aware pedagogy, the problem for the classroom teacher concerned with the SENs of a pupil lies in identifying the nature of the learning difficulty or disability, and assessing the implication for its consequences (Levine, 2002b). The Special Educational Needs Code of Practice refers to the awareness as the point at which a teacher has a concern about an individual pupil (DfES, 2001). A crucial prerequisite for any teachers subsequent decision for action is a clear understanding of the nature and the consequences. It is important then to recognise that a given learning difficulty or disability may or not prevent or hinder an individual from making use of educational facilities of a kind provided in schools (Education Act, 1999). Once the teacher is aware action may take place to meet their needs. Pedagogy takes an important role as it represents the interaction between the learner and the teacher with respects to curricular aims and objectives. This issue therefore concerns the central operation in education, and, in principle, should specify the optimal circumstances in which successful learning and teaching can take place Research into the typical learning styles of students with ADHD suggests that they learn more effectively when they are able actively to experiment and are presented with concrete examples that are visual in nature (Cooper and Ideus, 1996). In addition, students with ADHD are said to be somewhat verbose, talking at inappropriate times; an aspect that can be exploited by designing lessons that allow increased opportunity for verbal participation. Research also shows that this kind of approach can lead to decreases in disruptive behaviour (Levine, 2002b). This strategy will welcome pupils with SEN as full members of the group and will help to value them for the contribution they make. This will develop their feeling of belonging and their ability to participate in a mainstream school environment. Better staff-student relationships and a positive classroom ethos is also said to be essential when dealing with pupils with ADHD. Such a change may be difficult to achieve but recent research by Ghanizadeh, Bahredar and Moeini (2006) demonstrated that more tolerant and positive attitudes towards students with ADHD are associated with levels of knowledge of ADHD among teachers. This suggests that training to increase teachers knowledge of ADHD may need to be a priority if inclusive practice is to consolidate. Breaking down tasks into small, manageable chunks will also facilitate to accommodate the shorter attention span of such students. In addition by highlighting key information where possible will help students who experience difficulties in selective attention (Levine, 2002a). Over time, students can be taught to practise drawing focus to key information themselves (Humphrey, 2009). These strategies are said to help to create a better fit between the class environment and the students and are things that staffs in school do that give meaning to the concept of inclusion. However, many of the strategies proposed are appropriate and should be an integral part of any lesson regardless whether children with SEN are present or not. Another approach as a tool to promote and achieve inclusive practice is what Humphrey (2009) refers to as Cognitive-behavioural approach. Cognitive-behavioural approaches emphasise the use of reinforcement principles to alter thoughts or cognitions related to ADHD behaviours. Simple examples of the application of such techniques in the classroom include teaching children to use self-testing strategies (e.g. when reading, students are encouraged to stop at key points and ask themselves questions about what they have just read) and use self-reinforcement (such as giving themselves praise for achieving targets, such as staying on task for a period of time). A review of cognitive-behavioural approaches by Ervin, Bankert and DuPaul (1996) concluded that they can be successful in achieving behaviour change, but they are more effective when combined with behavioural contingencies in the natural environment. Startling statistics show that up to 75% of students with ADHD are prescribed stimulant medication, with Ritalin being the most important commonly used drug (Department of Health, 2003). If specialist knowledge and understanding is important in promoting inclusive practice, teachers knowledge with regards to the use of medication within this group is essential. It is crucial for teachers to understand the role it plays in students lives, and the implications it may have for education. Teachers may take an active role here in monitoring the effects of medication observed in the classroom (Cooper and Ideus, 1996). Having an understanding of the effects of stimulant medication will enable the teacher to plan for specific pedagogical strategies in a way that takes these factors into account and allow full access to education. Stimulant medication takes effect very quickly, but its influences may not last throughout the school day. For instance, their effect on behaviour (in terms of activity levels) typically lasts longer than its effects on cognition (in terms of attention). As a result, even though students may not be up and out of their seats or blurting out answers, they may still not be accessing the curriculum because they are struggling to maintain their focus on the material presented. In addition, even though medication may be effective in managing the core difficulties experienced by those with ADHD, it is less useful in alleviating secondary problems such as social isolation and academic underachievement (Dogett, 2004), therefore limiting the active participation of the child in both class and school environment. In addition, inflexible staff and lack of inventiveness in some schools have been reported by OFSTED (2004) as factors affecting the development towards effective inclusion. From a personal perceptive ine can concur with OFSTED;s statement. Within ones organisation, teachers overall consensus is one of frustration and guilt when dealing with pupils with SEN in not being able to help them. An SEN register is distributed to every teacher with pupils name and their areas of need well into the 1st term. This result with the teacher suddenly realising that pupil X and pupil Y might be experiencing a range of difficulties due to their needs not being taken into account, resulting in disruptive behaviour. In addition, an organisation where teachers SEN knowledge and understanding is limited brings in another issue. Teachers find themselves wondering what can be done to help these pupils with limited success. Within the organisation there is a SEN Coordinator position, but in the past, when approached and asked for am expert opinion, the answer was you can look it up in the internet and find out further information. This barrier is significant as Wedell (2008:131) rightly states Consultation with the schools SENCo may be required, and this may extend to the involvement of support services from outside school, as indicated in the successive stages of the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice all in effort to make sure the students actively belongs and participates in mainstream school settings. This is currently non existent within the organisation. Furthermore, learning support classes are timetabled for children with SEN, but these take form more as a homework club rather than a structured learning support session. Teachers have no influence in what get taught in these classes resulting in the possibility of pupils doing something that not necessarily links with what is being taught in mainstream class. The students find themselves in an inclusive mainstream sett ing in curriculum subjects and in a segregated setting with regards to learning support. This may result in confusion and frustration, especially with pupils who are said to benefit from being provided with a clear structure to each day lesson and task. With regards to medication, throughout the 4 year career in teaching, there have been a number of students diagnosed with ADHD. However, up until today, there is no awareness or knowledge whether they were on medication or not. Overall, within the organisation it is clear that it is unrealistic to expect teachers and other members to be able to properly fulfil requirements such as differentiating the curriculum for all children, including those with SEN, without receiving the appropriate support and training to enable them to do so. In some cases as mentioned above, the teacher may require a detailed knowledge of child development psychology to equip them to do so to the greatest effect and of equal importance, to understand why the pupil acts and behaves the way they do. 5.2 Autistic Spectrum Disorders According to Jordan (2008:1) education can be, and perhaps should be, an effective treatment for autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in the sense that, there is so much that individuals with ASD have to learn that is just intuitively grasped by the non-autistic, learning may best be enhanced through high-quality teaching. But education is more than just another treatment. It is the way that citizens are taught the values, understanding, knowledge and skills that will enable their full participation in their community in a way that welcomes full their values and contributions they make. The first battles for those with ASD were fought for the same purpose as the battles for any special educational need: the right to be included at all. As with SEN there was recognition that degree of autism can occur across the full ability range. ASD inclusion has been based on the entitlement view of education as the only way of becoming a full member of society. The bases of most programmes for inclusion for pupils with ASD were not inclusion at all, but form of integration (Jordan and Powell, 1994). As previous research demonstrates (Ainscoq, 1999) the issue with regards to ASD pupils has been that the content and the teaching approaches of the National Curriculum in mainstream schools were not changed to accommodate children with ASD It was assumed that the content was of equal relevance to all children, requiring modification and breaking down curriculum content into smaller steps (which is often effective for some children with learning difficulties) is not appropriate for ch ildren with ASD, where the development and learning patterns are different. There is even problem with the main purpose of mainstream education, which in terms of inclusion, is surely to gain from co-operative and collaboration with typical peers. Yet many of the supports to enable inclusion of children with ASD serve to make the child more isolated from peers, and support assistance are seldom given training (or a role) in enabling such children to have positive contact with their peers (Jordan, 2008), thus being more an organisational constraint rather than a pupils. Jordan (2008) also state that is a child is different, or has special needs, extra resources are provided to enable the child to have access to other children, even though the success of those resources in bringing that about has never been tested. So is inclusion possible for pupils with ASD? In order to include ASD students there needs to be a flexible education system. Teachers must know about learning and teaching and about the diversity that exists in teaching. If educators teach in a way that attains diversity, then more children with different SEN will be able to manage in mainstream settings becoming full members of the group. This will also benefit disruptive students and those with ADHD, dyslexia and so on. Once again the statement made by OFSTED (2004) that effective inclusion was frustrated by rigid timetabling and inflexible staffing is relevant. Rigid class grouping is associated with high pupil-teacher rations, which clearly make it difficult to give personal attention to individual pupils. In addition, successful learning opportunities in inclusive settings will require radical school reform, changing the existing system and rethinking the entire curriculum of the school to meet the needs of all children (Mittler 1994), what Norwich and Lewis (2005) explain as the curriculum dilemma. In addition, and similar to ADHD, the current approach to assessment needs to be addressed if inclusion is to prosper as the House of Commons Report for Children, Schools and Families (2008:3) reports that: we find that the use of national test results for the purpose of school accountability has resulted in some schools emphasizing the maximization of test results at the expense of a more rounded educational for their pupils Inevitably, one must be aware that there will be some individuals with ASD whose autism is so severe that they will need specialist support, but that does not need to be in a segregated setting if inclusion is desired. Resources based are the best model (Hesmonghalgh and Breakley, 2001), where the child with ASD belongs to his peer group teacher but has support staff with expertise and a haven in which to recover when needed (Jordan, 2008). This is a perfect example on how a child with SENs may have their needs met in a mainstream provision (following point 1 of the SEN Code of Practice) and is not segregated. Pupils with severe ASD will need special support and it is here where there is a role for specialist schools. Special schools should be seen as centres of excellence, pioneering new ways of working with ASD and dealing with the most extre